OTHERS

The Individual and the organization

About People/Individuals

People are an organisation's most valuable and expensive resource, but they are the most difficult element of an organisation to manage.

Individuals are almost infinitely different, they act differently in different circumstances and are, in many ways, entirely unpredictable. This means that, unlike machines, they are not interchangeable or able to be easily designed to do the jobs required of them.

In terms of the organisation, what we are interested in is the way in which people behave at work – that they perform effectively in pursuit of the organisation's goals.

The starting point for this is an understanding of what makes people behave in the way they do. Then we maybe able to direct their behaviour for the good of the organisation.

The basic determinants of individual behaviour

Personality – the individual psychological structures and processes which shape a person's actions and reactions with the environment;

Perception – the process by which the individual interprets the stimuli received from his/her environment;

Attitudes – the set of mental views or dispositions, based on beliefs and feelings, which a person brings to any situation; and

Learning – the process by which individuals acquire new knowledge, skills and attitudes.

THE INDIVIDUAL'S CONTRIBUTION TO THE ORGANISATION

ü  Achieving org goals that may be different from the personal goals of  the individuals

ü  Managers expect involvement, commitment & initiative from team members

ü  Managers expect employees to perform allocated tasks effectively & efficiently

ü  Managers see flexibility in undertaking organisational roles & responding to their leadership as an important contribution

ü  Individuals should contribute in terms of low absenteeism, good timekeeping and low turnover

ü  Individuals may contribute loyalty to the organisation which may produce additional commitment in difficult times

ü  Individuals contribute by representing the image and values of the org

ü  Individuals contribute their time, energy, presence, ideas, skills & effort

APPROACHES TO STUDYING PERSONALITY- Definition

Although psychologists do not agree on a single definition of "personality", there is some consensus that it is concerned with: " those relatively stable and enduring aspects of an individual that distinguish him/her from other people and at the same time form the basis for our predictions concerning his/her behavior " (Wright et al., 1970)

"characteristic patterns of behavior and modes of thinking that determine a person's adjustment to the environment" (Hilgard et al., 1979) Two features of this definition are noteworthy. In the first place, the word "characteristic“ suggests a degree of permanence in personality. In the second place, "environment “suggests that personality is displayed in a social and physical context.

A Framework for Studying Personality

How do you judge other people? Do you tend to take one significant trait  to describe the whole person; e.g. one fellow worker is reserved while another is aggressive. If so then this is far too simplistic an assessment. People display many traits and these may vary in time & by situation. A more scientific approach is clearly required. There are two main approaches:

*Nomothetic – This seeks to identify and measure the characteristics of personality. *Idiographic – This focuses on the uniqueness of the individual and treats them as a whole.

One of the main differences between these two approaches is to be found in the "nature versus nurture" debate. The first approach sees personality traits as genetically determined and largely fixed at birth. The second approach believes that personality is a function of upbringing and the experience of others.

Influences on personality- Rollin son

Genetic factors – there is significant evidence that our genetic inheritance plays a role in developing our personality. Children, especially twins, are observed to inherit common family traits.

Social factors -influence personality as a result of interacting with other people. Socialisation is the process of being taught how to behave & feel by family, friends and other significant people. Humans are social being so it is expected that social interaction will affect our personality &behaviour.

Cultural factors -are wider social beliefs & values that are absorbed by individual & guide behaviour which is acceptable in society. This varies across cultures.

Situational factors – reflect the effects of specific experiences or situations on a person's feelings & behaviour. There will have been certain events in life that have a significant effect on you. A person's personality might also change if role changes. People also tend to behave according to the cues/expectations they detect in a given situation.

Psychoanalytic Approach (Idiographic

It concentrates on the "unconscious" bases of behaviour & has its origins in the work of Sigmund Freud. In Freud's case, much of the approach grew out of his clinical work with patients suffering from psychological & emotional disturbance. As this approach has the unconscious as its fundamental subject matter, it has clear problems of accessibility to information. Only overt behaviour can be observed, & unconscious motives have to be inferred from that behaviour, unless they reveal themselves in some other way. He believed that dreams were such a source –hence, the importance attached to their interpretation in psychoanalysis.

Another method used to unlock the unconscious is free association. Here, the subject is asked to respond with the first word that comes to mind as the analyst produces a list of words. The association of ideas involved in this process is thought to reveal unconscious connections and motives for overt behaviour.

Freud's three major elements of personality:

(a) The structure  consisted of three parts: *the id – the primitive, pleasure-seeking urge, that requires immediate gratification. *the ego – an intermediary between the id and the real world. It is the part that tests images against reality, and thinks, learns and perceives. *the superego – a representation of social values and morals. It is made up of the conscience that punishes through guilt and the ego-ideal that rewards through pride.

(b) The development The path of development proceeds through a series of overlapping stages. Experience in these stages is vital to the adult personality. Failure to properly to pass through each of these psycho-sexual stages may result in "fixation" at a particular stage.

(c) The dynamics

Personality Traits- Factor analysis: Catt ell and the 16 PF

ü  Outgoing - Reserved

ü  More intelligent - Less intelligent

ü  Emotionally stable - Affected by feelings

ü  Dominant - Submissive

ü  Happy  go lucky -Serious

ü  Conscientious - Expedient

ü  Venturesome - Timid

ü  Sensitive – Tough minded

ü  Suspicious - Trusting

ü  Imaginative - Practical

ü  Shrewd - Forthright

ü  Apprehensive - Confident

ü  Experimenting  -Conservative

ü  Self sufficient – Group dependent

ü  Controlled - Uncontrolled

ü  Tense – Relaxed

Personality Traits- Factor analysis: Steers – clusters of traits

Interpersonal style – for example, trust, authority orientation

Social sensitivity – for example, empathy

Ascendant tendencies – for example, assertiveness, dominance

Dependability – for example, self-reliance, integrity

Emotional stability – for example, control, anxiety

Cognitive style – for example, inflexibility, risk-taking, complexity of thought.

Personality Traits- Factor analysis: Eysenck

Extroversion – introversion: passive, controlled, calm, quiet, anxious, excitable, sociable, carefree

Neuroticism – stability; and

Psychoticism

DIFFICULTIES IN STUDYING PERSONALITY

Interpersonal style – for example, trust, authority orientation.

Social sensitivity – for example, empathy.

Ascendant tendencies – for example, assertiveness, dominance.

Dependability – for example, self-reliance, integrity.

Emotional stability – for example, control, anxiety.

Cognitive style – for example, inflexibility, risk-taking, complexity of thought.